History and Usage of the Language

Felsefe dersim için 2006 da hazırladığım bir ödev, buyrunuz.

Since the first appearance of human being on earth, a lot of communication techniques have been invented. Scientists thought that first techniques were making noises and using body signs. Thousands years later people improved speaking skills, it was a big step for social life of humanity. Easier communication helped people to understand each other correctly. Simple prototypes of common culture generated. As the speaking ability improved and transformed into language, telling ways of the events and thoughts were shaped. Then, history of humanity had one of its children, named; History of human social life, from this moment we can replace the humanity word with people, to make clear the difference between just biological carbons based organisms and biological carbon based organisms which have mental ability of thinking.

History of Humanity

Scientists achieved to trace our direct ancestry back about 2.5 million years ago which named Homo habilis (Handy Man) and placed in Africa. It is not clear to trace back from that time through the fossil results. Nearly 1 million years ago the first great diaspora of humanity began, scientists called them as Homo erectus (Upright Man, descendant of Homo habilis). They spread out from Africa through the Middle East and throughout the Old World until nearly China and beyond (Peking Man - 500,000 years ago).( 6 Billion™ - The Game Of The New Millennium).

Continent of Europe was also habitable and occupied by these proto-humans around 850,000 years ago. Due to dispersion of the fossils, nearly 500,000 years ago these populations had changed sufficiently to be re-classified as Homo sapiens (Wise Man). Around 130,000 years ago, with Northern Europe in the grip of the Great Ice-Age, Homo sapiens’ representative there was the anatomically distinct Neanderthal Man. They lived from Spain in the West to the shores of the Black Sea in the East. In Sub-Saharan Africa, around the same time, Homo sapiens sapiens (that’s us!) had displaced all other hominids in that region (Maybe this event explains that why we are killing each other). In South East Asia, a distinct third modern human species may have arisen in the Middle East, about 100,000 years ago, the dramatic reunion of two of these branches of humanity began as our direct ancestors discovered Neanderthals already living there! The second great diaspora had begun, this time by Homo sapiens sapiens, coming out of Africa just as Homo sapiens had done before them. The genetic and fossil record confirms that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens were, in fact, separate species descended from a common ancestor, Homo erectus. Any breeding between the two would, at best, have resulted in sterile off-spring .(McClellan III, Dorn, ”Science and the Technology in the World History”). During this time our ancestors were fighting against the nature to gather food, a very small culture was invented, so it is negligible.

Up to 60,000 years ago Northern Europe, Siberia, the Americas, Polynesia and Australia were totally inhabited and unoccupied by humanity. Armed with the strategically flexible lifestyle of the hunter gatherer, Modern Man (Homo sapiens sapiens) spread across the globe. They learned to live everywhere, adapting relatively easily to changing conditions. Settlement of Australia by Aboriginals which they are still there, is variously dated between 50 - 60,000 years ago. Wave after wave of settlers washed upon Australia’s Northern shores from South East Asia, helped by the land-bridges created by lowered sea-levels due to the Ice Age in the distant North.(Hewes,n.d.).

Europe was settled by Cro-Magnon Man (European Homo sapiens sapiens) around 40,000 years ago. Siberia was settled perhaps 20,000 years ago. In the Americas early human fossils dating back 30,000 years have been found as far South as Brazil and scientific works of the fossils claimed that Homo sapiens sapiens came there form Australia . However, actions of the humanity in America appeared so late then other continents. It seems that the Mini Ice Age may have assisted human migration across the Bering Straight around 12,000 years ago resulting in the complete settling of the Americas by 11,000 years ago. The smaller islands of Polynesia such as Fiji (3,600 years ago), Hawaii (1,500 years ago) and New Zealand (only 1,000 years ago) were the last the be colonised and settled by our hunter gatherer ancestors.

It appears that we may have co-existed with Neanderthals for up to tens of thousands of years in the Middle East, and then Neanderthals became extinct. With the appearance of European Homo sapiens sapiens in Europe 40,000 years ago, the co-existence there (perhaps a combined total of only 12,000 individuals) lasted up to 10,000 thousand years.

Neanderthals appear to have been creatures of habit. They rarely ranged far from their home bases, and did not adopt the flexible hunter gatherer lifestyle of our ancestors, making their increasingly isolated communities more and more vulnerable. Whilst Neanderthals were undoubtedly sophisticated and fully human, their tools were more primitive than Cro Magnon, changing slowly over longer periods of time. Also, Neanderthals rarely lived beyond 40, Cro Magnons sometimes lived to 60 before Death claimed them. Almost certainly, War, Famine and Pestilence also took their turns with Death in exterminating Neanderthals. Scientists believe that war would not have been the organised war of today, but it is also obvious to believe that Cro Magnon and Neanderthals lived in perfect harmony. More likely it was a slow war of attrition with individual victims on either side, with the faster breeding and ultimately more numerous Cro Magnon (so us) eventually prevailed .

Homo sapiens spread throughout the Old World and survived for close to a million years. Homo sapiens sapiens spread from Africa only 100,000 years ago. By 35,000 years ago Homo sapiens was gone and Homo sapiens sapiens was on the way to colonising the entire globe. Rapid population growth began with 10 million hunter gatherers at the dawn of the Agricultural Revolution 10,000 years ago. Prior to that moment our doubling rate was estimated at 4,000 years. (Hewes n.d.)

History of Human Culture

Communications which are interestingly symbolic involve a partial detachment from the referent: one criterion of a proto-linguistic mentality is how good it is at lying. Our near relatives, the chimpanzees and bonobos, have male-bonded societies in which females migrate between troops, and individuals leave and rejoin the group. This means an individual potentially has private information it could share or withhold. Vocalizations of monkeys, and probably apes, contain semantic detail about social relations as well as external threats. Chimpanzees give food-calls in the wild which attract others; in captivity they can lead others to hidden food, and convey its quality. Apes, and occasionally monkeys, deliberately deceive others, concealing both food and sex, and even facial expressions or erections. Apes (but not monkeys) recognize themselves, removing marks from their faces in mirrors, and can take others' roles in shared experiments. The capacities to give or withhold information and to be aware of others' intentions may be pre-requisites for the capacity to manipulate signs detached from the immediate: in other words, to have an idea. Having a consciousness of living and being as a individual person, is the first step of creation of communication and thinking. For this reasons our proto-relatives made their choices to share the knowledge and experience or keeping them secret to only involve it for himself. Probably there were times that events forced to share one person’s own knowledge and experiences with the others. As this progress repeated itself, a lot of relations have been appeared, and those relations were the small bricks of human social society. 'Society' and 'culture' are among the most contentious concepts of the human sciences. Sometimes treated as virtually synonymous, sometimes radically distinguished, their study has been maintained as the particular preserve of social and cultural anthropology, at the same time as it has been opened up by biologists to embrace almost the entire field of animal behavior.

The Humans can communicate with each other by using their body. We can separate body communication techniques in two; Static body presence, dynamic action of the body.Both of them are emotional and based on some physiological and physical reactions. As a result of this, reactions are different from culture to culture. They also developed to represent social roles and power in society. Simple-mobile societies, like tribes use tattooing and clothing for showing “individualism” (which is also marking of status). Sub category of the human being; sex is also effective to give shape to language. Female forms of speech tend to be more conservative than male forms, and for high class of society “prestigious” styles of speaking have been appeared. Status, or social power, is widely marked by particular speech-forms in socially stratified societies. Relations between language and society structure is not so simple, as the ages passes they effected each other more and more and relation became more complex. Sometimes they split into different categories and most of these categories evolved in their way, they nearly forgot their roots. Social structure in the Hunter-Gatherer societies was simple, on the other hand agricultural societies are more complex, because of their settled life allow them to produce large amount of products. Also their members were specialized different categories. As a result of this, people were obliged to live each other. These specifications also changed the language, different class of the society created different and complex language more then others. Also the economic benefit of some classes created a high social class. Relation of high and low classes forced the change the daily life speeches and sometimes created a pure grammar. The precise origin of infants' social powers is the subject of conflicting views. However, there is general agreement that infants are attracted to the physical and behavioural characteristics of people, and that such capacities are likely to be the product of evolutionary processes. In these terms infants appear to have a basic social disposition which is part of our evolutionary heritage. However, this social disposition does not appear to extend to the way that infants are able to contribute to the structure of social activities in which they engage. As illustrated by studies of gaze and vocalization, infants are not full partners in the interactive process; rather interaction is structured by Western adults to appear as a co-ordinated interpersonal process.

'Language' has been defined in three ways: by listing its 'design features'; its structural properties, particularly its 'rule-governed creativity'; and its uses or functions.

In terms of design features, spoken and signed languages differ trivially in terms of the latter's not using the vocal-auditory channel; but have been claimed to differ more significantly in the extent to which spoken language is composed of arbitrary signs, while sign languages are based on more iconic signs. This has led to an erroneous demotion of the status of sign languages. A more careful analysis shows that both types of language are comparable on this dimension in their contemporary forms, although there is some evidence that languages of both media have become more arbitrary over time. Similarly, structural analyses of both systems reveal they show a similar degree of 'duality of patterning', both below the structure of the word or sign, and above it at the level of grammar. Some researchers supported that language is based on a gestural origin during eighteenth century. In addition to this they said our close relatives great apes might have a language capacity. The modern argument for gestural primacy in language origins draws on several lines of evidence, including the following. Sound is of questionable suitability as the original basis for language, given the greater creative capacity and open-endedness of higher primate manual and digital operations. Regular tool-using in hominids probably evolved before vocal language, and the human brain's left-lateralization for speech could have been tacked on to a previous specialization for predominantly right-handed gestural language and precise sequences of manual manipulations. In relatively simple contexts gestural communication has the distinct advantage of greater transparency and ease of communication. Writing originated separately in Mesopotamia and Egypt, China, pre-Columbian America, and, possibly, the Indus Valley. The earliest evidence of writing is cuneiform script from Mesopotamia at c.3500 BC. Six earlier classes of visual representation contributed to the development of writing-systems: the expressive and ritualistic markings found in cave art; tallying devices; property markings and totems; tokens; mnemonic devices; and pictographic/ideographic narrative forms. Early writing-systems were used for political and economic, religious, and historical-literary functions. There is no single order of functional development that applies to all cultures. (Sid Meier's Civilization 4, Civilopedia).

Writing-systems are classified into three types: logographic systems, which represent morphemes; syllabic systems, which represent syllables; and alphabetic systems, which represent units more closely related to phonemes than to syllables. Writing-systems tend to develop from the logographic to the syllabic, though this is not always the case. As syllabic systems interact with the structure of the spoken language they are trying to capture they adapt themselves through a variety of devices. This historical elaboration is not well served by considering it to be an evolutionary sequence, as has often been claimed.

The ancestors of modern alphabets were the iconographic and ideographic symbols developed by ancient man, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics. The first known alphabet, a combination of a number of early pictographic symbols known as North Semitic, was developed between 1700 and 1500 BC. Four other alphabets - South Semitic, Canaanite, Aramaic, and Greek - had evolved from the North Semitic alphabet by 1000 BC. The Roman alphabet, used by all the languages of Western Europe including English, was derived from the Greek alphabet sometime after 500 BC. The Roman alphabet became one of the most widespread due to the extensive use of the Latin language during the reign of the Roman Empire. The development of alphabets was significant in the development of advanced civilizations because it allowed history and ideas to be written down, rather than memorized and passed along orally.

Language is an analogical system for classification on multiple levels. Language systems build upon semantic analogies and analogies in phonological, morphological, and syntactic distributions (positional analogies). New meanings are created through the process of metaphorical extension. The direction of language change is determined in large part by this process and by analogical systematization - hierarchical congruence of classes.

Usage of Today's Language

People are eager to learn different languages of different contries and cultures. There are severals of reasons of this action but we can observe them in a few main-stream ideas. First of all we had lots of scientific and technological improvements which brought people together. In the history period humanity had modernism which claimed both scientific and philosopical backround. As Karl Marx said; all that is solid melts into air. These new type of social structure and world technology revealed the new relations which include commercial and educational. As the lots of people gathered from different cultures many communication and most of all language problems appeared. Problems are not only occurred between normal social life. Also philosophical arguments and new ideas appeared.

Philosophical doctrine called ordinary language philosophy connects weak relationships between main-stream philosophical problems.They are generally associated with the works of J. L. Austin, Gilbert Ryle and with the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Ordinary language had a less positive value and seemed as unimportant by the early analytic philosophical view. Bernard Russell didn’t paid much attention to language as a philosophical experience, for him it is useless to solve metaphysical problems by using unclear usage of ordinary language.

Some philosophers and philosophy groups like Vienna Circle , Wittgenstein and Frege tried to improve this idea on their works. They all used the methods of Aristotle logic and modern logic. Russell’s works and Wittgenstein’ Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus are nearly effected and completed each other. Basic idea was recreate the meaning of words, language and formulating the new type of language of representing world itself and explaining philosophy.

If we want to look for a general idea of the philosophers for languange;

Mind - World. Philosophers who made works about mind, made some relation with the mind and world. Perception, action, the mind’s bodily constitution are the some relations which they made.

Mind → Language. Language is nothing without understanding the things which it represent. Mental actions has the ability of internalize the meaning of language.

Language → Mind. Internalizing the language by mind works dialectic ways. Mind tries to understand the meaning of language. At this progress mind is also shaped by the language. Type of the language makes it own unique methods of understanding.

Language - World. As the language is the basic tool for understanding the meaning and desciription for reailty, how do we know that the language, which is created by some enviromental and mostly mental actions of the humanity, could be the key for the mind, which shaped by the language. This is the philosopher’s main discussion source, which will never be exhausted. (CRIMMINS, MARK,1998)

Wrong Usage of Language

My main problem with this issue is that how the wrong and misunderstood meaning of the objects could do and obviously meaningless statements. Two following philosopical trend can not agree with each other even pure mathematical problems. Modernism and Post-Modernism, relations between them and the most problematic issues that created big crises between them. The main diffrenece between these intellectual trend is the meaning of reality. This argument mostly appeares in science. For a closer look we need to take a short brief about them.

For a very superficial observation, modernism in science started when new scientific revolutions appeared in 16^th century. From the decadence of ancient Greeks and christianization of the Rome Empire to 16^th century, most of the natural events perceived as the act of God. Things fell like as God choice, angels were holding the flat-earth, celestial objects, heavenly bodies were moving in ether as Aristoteles understood before just like in the Bible. Of course God placed his creations on the center on the universe, which there is a heaven beyond it. Humanity woke up its most wonderful dream of narsism by a splash of cold scientific-method water. Scientists like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton revealed the fog of scholastic thought. From that time till now scientific method were created for observing and understanding the nature. We know that earth is not placed on the center of the universe, and all the object were moving by the law of gravitational forces etc. It seems that God has less jobs then before! He must be very greatful for these scientists. These scientific revolution effectted nearly all society, scholastic thought lost its domination over the mind. New Society’s elements changed, empirical scientific thought replaced the old thoughts. As the thoughts changed, new philosophical ideas appeared. Two of the most disruptive thinkers of the later period were, in biology, Charles Darwin and, in political science, Karl Marx. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty of the general public, and the sense of human uniqueness of the intelligentsia (this is an another cold splash against the uniqunes of the humanity). The notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx seemed to present a political version of the same problem: that problems with the economic order were not transient, the result of specific wrong doers or temporary conditions, but were fundamentally contradictions within the "capitalist" system. Both thinkers would spawn defenders and schools of thought that would become decisive in establishing modernism.

For some philosophers, post modernism in science appeared against the hard-nature based scientific side of modernism. In this intellectual view reality is totally different from one to another. Scientific method of modernism can not be the universal way in this relative nature and its laws. Today many intellectuals seemed to be the fan of this school. Many books were written about making analogies with nearly everything. Unfortunately natural science had its own place in them. Most of post modernist intellectuals explain their thoughts absolutely wrong ways and misunderstood subjects, due to describing wrong and subjective meaning of the words. Scientists were distressed by these intellectual trends because of its nonsense popularity.

In the year 1996 a physicist named Alan Sokal published an article; Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity, is full of wrong usage of words and meanings about scientific facts. Article was published on Social Text. Later that Alan Sokal said that it was a hoax to show postmodern intellectuals’ abuse of using science. This event shocked the postmodern intellectuals very badly and created many post issues about that hoax. As an example of this issue we must take a closer look a quotation from a post modernist article.

"The privileging of solid over fluid mechanics, and indeed the inability of science to deal with turbulent flow at all, she attributes to the association of fluidity with femininity. Whereas men have sex organs that protrude and become rigid, women have openings that leak menstrual blood and vaginal fluids. ... These idealizations are reinscribed in mathematics, which conceives of fluids as laminated planes and other modified solid forms. In the same way that women are erased within masculinist theories and language, existing only as not-men, so fluids have been erased from science, existing only as not-solids." (Irigaray, Hayles, 1992)

For a simplier meaning of this idea; solids are like males, fluids are like females. An absurd analogy which came from misunderstanding the facts and rules of science. Sex in species is a subject of biology, fluid and solid mechanic is a subject of physics. Any analogy between them represents an impossible work. In the usage of language, which created by the human mind, some similarities between them may be appeared. Nearly all of the societies were male dominant, even today this hasn’t changed. Due to the effects of the social structure to language, many words were created in this way. But nature laws are not affected by language. They have always been even before the humanity. Words, which we use for picturing the events, facts and objects, were created by us. They do not have ability to defining nature perfectly because we do not know or understand the nature laws all the time. As we described above, people tries to explain the reality by using the information of observation. From the scientist’s experience, we know that, different informations of the observations could create its relations between one reality. As scientific researches increased in number and quality, some of these hypotheses will be canceled or recreated. This progress will probably go to find a uniqe theorem which represents the relations of reality better. In the article, sexual specialities of both women and men meantioned to support these analogy. Penis protrudes and becomes rigid while vaginas leak fluids. This analogy is worse then before. Explanination methods of this series of analogy could go every where in every direction. If I interested in some dualist philosophy, i would say that humans have bones and blood, therefore both female and male contains each other with in their bodies. Furthermore, males could get blood cancer disease more then females and females could get bone disease more then males. If the real results of these diseases’ statistics do not match with my theory, I would blame the effects of brutal modernist world for mixing and changing the origins of sex. Later sentences blame the mathematic itself for being male dominant. We can clearly see that as the analogy goes deeper, more it is getting away from rational sense. Mathemathic is an abstraction. It is a pure mental event which does not have direct relations with the real world. It is a key to simplify the nature events for easier understanding. How we can blame the triangles for being male dominant? As the result of this article; Male dominant mathemathic and nature sciences can not create a model which represents female fluid mechanics. It is so clear that writer of this article does not know mathematic, physics and even biology.

The main problem is the lack of using language. Wrong methods of understanding facts and related words do a lot of different and useless results. One of them we discussed above. Post modernism is an acceptable way of creating novels, poetry and art. But when the progress comes to discuss about nature science, it is useless. We can not explain the reality with a subjective look and similar but nonsense usage of words. To overcome this problem people must have their education pure scientific way. But it will be a temporary solution; it does not criticize the roots of the problem. For a theorical solution, I suggest that meaning of the words of the language must be as pure as it possible. One word must picture only one thing. Since I am not a filologist I couldn’t improve a language structure for it. Also I have to make my own self-critisism; this type of language will be static, to avoid this problem there must be a hard working central state organization to create new words, and we found ourselves in politics. This type of political system will evolve a dictatorship and gain much more power we predicted. Power brings corruption, the system that created for overcome the static language will stop the improvement progresses of any kind, maybe there won’t be a language at all. After this dark futuristic ütopia let’s search for a less totalitarian language type. Reducing the emotional concepts of the adjectives. When we are talking about an object, we make our sentences with our subjective toughts. We say beautiful women, perfect movie and outstanding book. These adjectives represent our additional toughts about something with using a level structure. But these levels quality differs from person to person. Two people could say perfect for a thing, but we can not understand the meaning usage of perfect word according to this people. For a succesful common usage; we must use pure objective, mental meanings for words. Mathematical abstraction could be useful for it. Usage of the words like; good, plus good, double plus good. But George Orwell lived and wrote 1984 before me, in theory it could work but not all of language activities, there will be no myths, fable, and poetry like today. Most of the people won’t accept that. This 1984 theory would be useful for nature science articles, nothing more. I think there is no permanent solution, because language is not permanent and static. People must use their freewill and self control for their usage of words, like Buddha saying;

Words have the power to both destroy and heal. When words are both true and kind, they can change our world.

References

(Several Articles) from http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/hbook

Language, philosophy of. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved May 11, 2006, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/U017

Hayles, N. K. (1992) Gender encoding in fluid mechanics: masculine channels and feminine flows. Differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies. 4 (2), 16 - 44.

Sokal, A. D. (1996a) Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity. Social Text 46/47, 217 - 252.

McClellan III, Dorn, (1999) Science and the Technology in the World History.

Sid Meier's Civilization 4, Civilopedia, Alphabet Section.

Prolog da Berber Paradoksu

Meraklısı için, bernard Russel'ın berber paradoksunun Prolog da programlanışı.
Programı çalıştırmak için aşağıdaki veritabanını bir text dosyasına yazın ve "dosyaadi.pl"
şeklinde kaydedin. Bu haliyle SWI Prologda açılmaya hazır bir dosyanız olacaktır. SWI Prologda
dosyayı açtıktan sonra;
basla. ve paradoks. komutlarıyla kuralları yürütün.

%Seville’de bir berber var. Bu berber o köyde kendini
%tıraş etmeyenleri tıraş eder .Kendini tıraş edenleri ise tıraş
%etmez. Bu berber kendini tıraş eder mi etmez mi?

:-op(600, xfx, tras_eder).
koy_halki(X):-(X=emre ; X=ahmet ; X=berber).
traslama(X):-
berber tras_eder X ; X tras_eder X.
berber tras_eder X:-!,koy_halki(X), X\=berber, print(X), write(' berber tarafından traş edilir'), nl.
X tras_eder X:-!, koy_halki(X), X\=berber, print(X), write(' kendini traş eder'), nl.
X tras_eder Y:-print(X), write(' tras eder '), print(Y), write(' OLMAZ!'), nl, fail.
basla:-koy_halki(X),traslama(X),fail.
paradoks:-trace, koy_halki(kim), kim tras_eder berber.

Importance of Space Exploration

Uzayın keşfinin önemi hakkında ingilizce dersinde yazdığım bir makale.

Humankind’s another dream became reality by succeeding in space missions. From Yuri Gagarin’s first space flight to construction of big space station MIR. Thousand of spacecraft were launched into space by humans. This process has helped humanity to improve their science knowledge in related subjects. Many mysteries of the universe have been revealed. Over ten thousand astronomic objects were spotted by using complex space technology instruments. Space exploration not only helped space missions in terms of getting to know the universe better, but also provided many more advantages in the other fields. Space explorations will help scientific developments, aerospace and daily life technologies, all of which are very useful for humanity; therefore it must be encouraged for a brilliant future.

One of the reasons why space exploration must be encouraged is the fact that it contributes to scientific developments. Firstly, space science will enter its golden age with new data that is gained from space exploration. Examining the objects beyond the limits of human’s eye capability is the unique key for all scientific projects. Astronomy uses the same method. Telescopes act like an eye of humans while observing the space. Improved technology affects the telescopes as well. Su mentions that new technology telescopes will give the possibility of access to better information about the universe (Su, n.d., para. 22). Many projects have been developed and produced. NASA launched Chandra X-ray observatory in 1999. Chandra project scientist Dr. Martin C. Weisskopf said; “In four short years, Chandra has achieved numerous scientific firsts, revealing new details on all categories of astronomical objects including distant galaxies, planets, black holes and stars” (Weisskopf, n.d., “Marshall News” section). More projects will be done on this area of science in the future, more dark area of the universe will be revealed.

Secondly, unrevealed scientific facts of home planet will be discovered by the help of space exploration. Earth is placed in our solar system with the other planets. Humankind has always been hunger for the knowledge of these planets. A lot of questions and theories have appeared about them for thousands of years. Today, mankind has a capability of researching other planets. As a result of this action, some valuable data about Mars have been gained. The possibility of the existence of life forms on Mars a while ago has been proposed by scientists and Mars Odyssey spacecraft found ice in serious sizes below the plane of Mars (Adkins, 2004, para. 13). This valuable information will give the possibility of understanding many of the principle laws of the universe and similarities between other planets and earth. Further researches on Mars reported serious size of data, one of which is the fact that; “The salts found mimic the salts in earth fairly closely. There was apparently uniformity between planets” (Pasichnyk, n.d., “Mars” section).Once the connections between earth science and space exploration project are established, more unknown variables will be revealed.

Another reason that shows the importance of the space exploration is the fact that it will be very beneficial in aerospace technologies. First of all, further models of spacecraft must be created for the necessity of space exploration. Early models of the spacecrafts are satellites. They were used for orbiting the Earth generally. In the next years, they will be still main spacecraft for the humankind. Space exploration needs them for space observing and successful coordination with the earth from great distance. Also, earth observing will still have its importance and satellites will be used for this mission, too. New generation earth satellites will contain better intelligence for observing earth missions (Zhou, 2002, para. 1). Another improvement will be done in thrust subject. Propulsion systems of today consume large amount of propellant. Due to the fact that propellant for the rockets is so expensive, space exploration process needs low-cost and efficient propulsion. Hybrid rockets, which are still in development, are one of the practical projects. Benson, who is the president and chairman of SpaceDev says that hybrid rockets are less complex, they produce less harm to the nature; they are also safe and cheap to build (Benson, 1998, para. 3). As a result, these projects, which are needed for space exploration deadly, will do their jobs greatly both space and earth technology area.

Moreover, aircrafts will be better in all ways with the improvements in related to space exploration fields. As the technology and the population of the society is increasing, faster and low-cost transportation will be needed. Aircraft designs have been evoluted because of these perturbations. Space exploration projects carried this evolution to an upper stage. Designing tricks of the aircrafts can be easily used for in-atmosphere vehicles. Some projects have been made until today and they have great success about it. For example Gulf-stream business aircraft’s wings were improved by NASA computer programs, which have a lighter and more aerodynamical design (“Bringing Space Down to Earth”, n.d., “Transportation” section). Researches of aircraft designing force some related projects to improve better ways. Lighter and cheap materials will be needed so much. As a result of these events, many projects appeared. One of them is composite material, which is more powerful and light. NASA research on composite materials is used to achieve a 30-percent weight reduction in a twin-turbine helicopter, resulting in a substantial increase in aircraft performance (“Bringing Space Down to Earth”, n.d., “Transportation” section). In the near future the usage of this new technology will be more effective than today. In conclusion, aerospace technology is the luckiest section by having space exploration project’s advantages.

One final beneficial result of space exploration is the fact that it helps improvements in daily life. To begin with, space exploration missions will help to minimalize most objects which are also useful in daily life. All people, no matter if they are scientist or not, have social life. Minimalization of the objects is a great development and brings a lot of advantages to social life. Minimalized objects are cheap and effective; also they decrease the finishing time of works. Computers have the most benefits of minimalizing. Memory short stock, which is designed by NASA, offers very low size (“Bringing Space Down to Earth”, n.d., “Transportation” section). As a result of this, more space for other technological objects, which are waiting to be invented. Food technology which is used in space exploration is a great development for social life. New ways of producing low-weight fresh food and storing methods have been invented. Rehydratable food storage not only reduces the weight of the food stored but it also makes a more efficient way to store food. Required amount of water is added and the meal is ready to be eaten (“Exploration”, n.d., para. 3). Future of the food technology will be like this and people will spend less time for preparing food. In conclusion, if the place of the technology remains only where it is born, it will be useless for most of the people. All side of human life must have benefits of the new technology somehow.

Finally, subcategory developments of space exploration will create its related products for daily life. Communication is one of the related subjects with the space exploration projects. Also, it is a very important progress for humankind in all ways. Development of communication can be seen in all stages of the history. From the shaping smokes to telephones, its evolution continued. Today, it is affected by the benefits of space exploration. World wide satellite telephone systems, which are able to make communications on large areas including land and ocean, have been made and most of them are in progress (Katz, 1995, para. 1). High technology communication made the world more reachable. Humanity and the military are bounded together until today. It appears that will be the same in the future. Like other technological improvements, space exploration has helped the military as well. Militaristic devices have the earliest benefits of space technology. Radars, militaristic satellites and nearly all types of aircrafts have their first services to army. After the development on the space exploration area, more complicated devices have been invented and they are ready to have usage in nearly all country’s armies. The main purpose of the new militaristic devices is making successful damage with less money costs. Directed weapon systems, which are used in rockets, are more successful in point-shot with their increased damage capability as well as using satellite navigation (“Satellite Navigation System”, n.d., “Civil and Military Uses” section). These powerful weapons must have a dissuasive role for a peaceful earth for humankind. Otherwise, there will not be a space exploration project which will carry humanity to the unexplored areas of the universe.

In conclusion, researches and technologies about space exploration are very important for humanity. Despite the fact that space exploration projects need huge money and labour, it can not be totally cancelled. It is the main thrust of humanity’s future dreams which expands their limits as new projects accomplished. Also, relations between space technologies and other technologies are so bounded with unbreakable chains. The future of humankind is highly dependent on space exploration, no matter how difficult it is, the sources of humanity must flow to space technologies.

Emre KARADENİZ

References

Adkins, J. (2004). Space exploration key to future life, technology. Retrieved October 6, 2005, from http://www.easternecho.com/cgi-bin/story.cgi?3261

Bringing space down to earth. (2004). Nasa Spinoffs. Retrieved October 27, 2005, from

http://www.thespaceplace.com/nasa/spinoffs.html

Exploration. (n.d.). The space shuttle food system. Retrieved October 7, 2005 from http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/astronauts/food-system.html

Katz, R. H. (1995). Direct broadcast satellite technology. Retrieved November 8, 2005, from Berkeley University, BNGR Faculty Website: http://bnrg.eecs.berkeley.edu/~randy /Daedalus/BARWAN/DBS.html

NASA. (2003). NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory marks four years of discovery firsts. Retrieved October 27, 2005, from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/ news/news/releases/2003/03-158.html

Pasichnyk, R. M. ( n.d.). The similarities of the planets (and other celestial objects). Retrieved September 11, 2005 from http://www.livingcosmos.com/celestial.htm

Satellite navigation system. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 7, 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation_satellite

SpaceDev acquires hybrid rocket technology. (1998). Space Daily. Retrieved September 29, 2005, from http://www.spacedaily.com/news/spacedev-98e.html

Su, F. (2000). New telescopes herald a golden age of astronomy. Retrieved November 8, 2005, from http://www.spie.org/web/oer/march/mar00/telescopes.html

Zhou, G. (2002). Overview of International workshop on future intelligent earth observing satellites. Retrieved November 8, 2005, from http://www.isprs.org/ commission1/report_denver_fieos.pdf

Hugo Bilimkurgu Ödülleri

Geçmişten 1980 yılına kadar verilmiş Hugo ödülleri listesi.
1980:
Roman: Cennetin Çeşmeleri Arthur C. Clarke
Kısa Roman: "Düşman Mayını" Barry B. Longyear
Hikaye: "Kumkrallar" George R. R. Martin
Kısa Hikaye: "The Way of Cross and Dragon" George R. R. Martin
Hikaye dışı kitap: Bilim-kurgu Ansiklopedisi (Peter Nicholls, ed.)
Dramatik Sunum: Yaratık
Profesyonal Editör: George H. Scithers
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Michael Whelan
Fanzin: Locus (Charles N. Brown, ed.)
Amatör Yazar: Bob Shaw
Amatör Sanatçı: Alexis Gilliland
Campbell Ödülü: Barry B. Longyear
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): Ray Bradbury

1979:
Roman: Düşyılanı Vonda McIntyre
Kısa Roman: "The Persistence of Vision" by John Varley
Hikaye: “Avcının Ayı” Poul Anderson
Kısa Hikaye: "Cassandra" by C. J. Cherryh
Dramatik Sunum.: Superman
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Vincent DiFate
Fanzin: Science Fiction Review (Richard E. Geis,.)
Amatör Yazar: Bob Shaw
Amatör Sanatçı: Bill Rotsler
Campbell Ödülü: Stephen R. Donaldson
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): Ursula K. Le Guin
Gandalf Ödülü (Book-Length Fantasy): Beyaz Ejderha Anne McCaffrey

1978:
Roman: Yıldız Kapısı Frederik Pohl
Kısa Roman: "Yıldızdansı" Spider ve Jeanne Robinson
Hikaye: "Kehribarın Gözleri" by Joan D. Vinge
Kısa Hikaye: "Jeffty Is Five" by Harlan Ellison
Dramatik Sunum.: Yıldız Savaşları
Profesyonal Editör: George H. Scithers
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Rick Sternbach
Amateur Magazine: Locus (Charles ve Dena Brown,)
Amatör Yazar: Richard E. Geis
Amatör Sanatçı: Phil Foglio
Campbell Ödülü: Orson Scott Card
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): Poul Anderson
Gandalf Ödülü (Book-Length Fantasy): The Silmarillion J. R. R. Tolkien (Christopher Tolkien)

1977:
Roman: Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang Kate Wilhelm
Kısa Roman: "By Any Other Name" Spider Robinson "Houston, Houston, Beni Duyuyormusun?" James Tiptree, Jr.
Hikaye: "Biyonik Adam" Isaac Asimov
Kısa Hikaye: "Tricentennial" by Joe Haldeman
Dramatik Sunum.: (Ödül verilmedi)
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Rick Sternbach
Amatör Degi: Science Fiction Review (Richard E. Geis.)
Amatör Yazar: Susan Wood ve Richard E. Geis
Amatör Sanatçı: Phil Foglio
Campbell Ödülü: C. J. Cherryh
Special Ödülü: George Lucas, Star Wars
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): Andre Norton

1976:
Roman: Ebedi Savaş (The Forever War) Joe Haldeman
Kısa Roman: "Home Is the Hangman" by Roger Zelazny
Hikaye: "The Borderland of Sol" by Larry Niven
Kısa Hikaye: Zeplini Yakala! (Catch That Zeppelin!) by Fritz Leiber
Dramatik Sunum.: Çocuk ve Köpeği (A Boy and His Dog )
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Fanzin: Locus (Charles ve Dena Brown.)
Amatör Yazar: Richard E. Geis
Amatör Sanatçı: Tim Kirk
Campbell Ödülü: Tom Reamy
Special Ödülü: James E. Gunn Almaşık Dünyalar (Alternate Worlds),
Resimli BilimkurguTtarihi .
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): L. Sprague de Camp

1975:
Roman: Mülksüzler Ursula K. Le Guin
Kısa Roman: Lya için Şarkı "A Song for Lya" George R. R. Martin
Hikaye: "Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans" Harlan Ellison
Kısa Hikaye: "The Hole Man" Larry Niven
Dramatik Sunum.: Gneç Frankenstein
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Amatör Magazin: The Alien Critic (Richard E. Geis)
Amatör Yazar: Richard E. Geis
Amatör Sanatçı: Bill Rotsler
Campbell Ödülü: P. J. Plauger
Special Ödülü: Donald A. Wollheim , Her şeyi yapan hayran "the fan who has done everything"
Special Ödülü: Walt Lee , Fantastik Filmler için Referans (RehberiReference Guide to Fantastic Films)
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): Fritz Leiber

1974:
Roman: Ramayla Buluşma Arthur C. Clarke
Kısa Roman: Fişlenmiş Kız "The Girl Who Was Plugged In" James Tiptree, Jr.
Hikaye: "The Deathbird" by Harlan Ellison
Kısa Hikaye: Omelas'ı Bırakıp Gidenler Ursula K. Le Guin
Dramatik Sunum.: Sleeper
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Amatör Magazine: Algol (Andy Porter, ed.) ve The Alien Critic (Richard E. Geis, ed.)
Amatör Yazar: Susan Wood
Amatör Sanatçı: Tim Kirk
Campbell Ödülü: Spider Robinson ve Lisa Tuttle
Special Ödülü: Chesley Bonestell
Gandalf Ödülü (Grand Master): J. R. R. Tolkien

1973:
Roman: İşte Tanrılar. Isaac Asimov
Kısa Roman: Dünyaya Orman denir. Ursula K. Le Guin
Hikaye: Keçi Şarkısı (Goat Song) Poul Anderson
Kısa Hikaye: Eurema's Dam,R. A Lafferty ve Buluşma (The Meeting), Frederik Pohl ve C. M. Kornbluth
Dramatik Sunum.: Mezbaha Baş
Profesyonal Editör: Ben Bova
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Amatör Magazin: Energumen (Mike Glicksohn veSusan Wood Glicksohn.)
Amatör Yazar: Terry Carr
Amatör Sanatçı: Tim Kirk
Campbell Ödülü: Jerry Pournelle
Special Ödülü: Pierre Versins, L'Encyclopedie de l'Utopie et de la science fiction

1972:
Roman: To Your Scattered Bodies Go Philip José Farmer
Kısa Roman: Hava ve Karanlığın Kraliçesi Poul Anderson
Kısa Hikaye: Kararsız Ay "Inconstant Moon" Larry Niven
Dramatik Sunum.: Otomatik Portakal
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Amatör Magazin: Locus (Charles ve Dena Brown)
Amatör Yazar: Harry Warner, Jr.
Amatör Sanatçı: Tim Kirk
Special Ödülü: Harlan Ellison (Antoloji Çalışması) Yeniden, Tehlikeli Görüler (Again, Dangerous Visions)
Special Ödülü: Club du Livre d'Anticipation (Fransa), (Kitap Üretimi)
Special Ödülü: Nueva Boyutu (Nueva Dimension) (İspanya), (Magazin Üretimi)

1971:
Roman: Halka Dünya Larry Niven
Kısa Roman: "Ill Met in Lankhmar" Fritz Leiber
Kısa Hikaye: Yavaş Heykel (Slow Sculpture), Theodore Sturgeon
Dramatik Sunum.: (Ödül verilmedi)
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Leo ve Diane Dillon
Fanzin: Locus (Charles and Dena Brown)
Amatör Yazar: Richard E. Geis
Amatör Sanatçı: Alicia Austin

1970:
Roman: Karanlığın Sol Eli Ursula K. Le Guin
Kısa Roman: Gölegeler Gemisi (Ship of Shadows) by Fritz Leiber
Kısa Hikaye: "Time Considered as a Helix of Semi-Precious Stones" by Samuel R. Delany
Dramatik Sunum.: Apollo XI Haber Kapakları
Professional Magazine: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Fanzin: Science Fiction Review (Richard E. Geis.)
Amatör Yazar: Bob Tucker
Amatör Sanatçı: Tim Kirk
[year] [category]
1969:
Roman: Zanzibar’da Durmak (Stand on Zanzibar) John Brunner
Kısa Roman: Gece Kanatları (Nightwings) Robert Silverberg
Hikaye: Et Paylaşımı (The Sharing of Flesh) Poul Anderson
Kısa Hikaye: Dünyanın Kalbinde Aşkı Haykıran Canavar (The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World) Harlan Ellison
Dramatik Sunum.: 2001: Uzay Macerası .
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Jack Gaughan
Fanzin: Science Fiction Review (Richard E. Geis, ed.)
Amatör Yazar: Harry Warner, Jr.
Amatör Sanatçı: Vaughn Bodé
Special Ödülü: Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, ve Michael Collins, "En iyi Ay İnişi"



1968:
Roman: Işık Tanrısı Roger Zelazny
Kısa Roman: Weyr’i Aramak (Weyr Search) Anne McCaffrey ve Mor Mücadele Atlıları (Riders of the Purple Wage) Philip José Farmer
Hikaye: "Gonna Roll Them Bones" Fritz Leiber
Kısa Hikaye: Ağzım Yok ve Bağırmam Gerekiyor.(I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream) Harlan Ellison
Dramatik Sunum.: Sonsuzluğun Kenarındaki Şehir (City on the Edge of Forever), (Uzay Yolu, Harlan Ellison)
Profesyonell Magazin: If
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Jack Gaughan
Fanzin: Amra (George Scithers)
Amatör Yazar: Ted White
Amatör Sanatçı: George Barr
Special Ödülü: Harlan Ellison Tehlikeli Görüler
Special Ödülü: Gene Roddenberry Uzay Yolu

1967:
Roman: Ay Haşin Efendidir (The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress) Robert A. Heinlein
Hikaye: Son Kale Jack Vance
Kısa Hikaye: Nötron Yıldızı (Neutron Star) Larry Niven
Dramatik Sunum.: "The Menagerie" (Uzay yolu)
Profesyonel Magazin: If
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Jack Gaughan
Fanzin: Niekas (Ed Meskys ve Felice Rolfe)
Amatör Yazar: Alexei Panshin
Amatör Sanatçı: Jack Gaughan
Special Ödülü: CBS Television (21. Yüzyıl)
1966:
Roman: …Ve Bana Conrad De (... And Call Me Conrad) Roger Zelazny ve Dune Frank Herbert
Kısa Kurgu: " 'Repent, Harlequin!' Said the Ticktockman" Harlan Ellison
Profesyonel Magazin: If
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Frazetta
Amatör Magazin: ERB-dom (Camille Cazedessus, Jr)
Tüm Zamanların en İyi Serisi: Vakıf Isaac Asimov

1965:
Roman: Avare (The Wanderer) Fritz Leiber
Kısa Hikaye: Asker, Soru Sorma (Soldier, Ask Not) Gordon R. Dickson
Özel Dram: Dr. Garipaşk
Magazin: Analog
Sanatçı: John Schoenherr
Yayıncı: Ballantine
Fanzin: Yandro (Robert ve Juanita Coulson)

1964:
Roman: Yol İstasyonu (Way Station) Clifford D. Simak
Kısa Kurgu: Krallarla Ateşkes Yok (No Truce with Kings) Poul Anderson
Profesyonel Magazin: Analog
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Ed Emshwiller
BK Kitap Yayınevi: Ace Books
Amatör Magazin: Amra (George Scithers)

1963:
Roman: Yüksek Kaledeki Adam Philip K. Dick
Kısa Kurgu: Ejder Efendiler (The Dragon Masters) Jack Vance
Dramatik Sunum.: (Ödül verilmedi)
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Roy G. Krenkel
Amatör Magazin: Xero (Richard ve Pat Lupoff)
Special Ödülü: P. Schuyler Miller (Analog Magazinindeki Kitap yorumları için).
Special Ödülü: Isaac Asimov, (Fantasy & Science Fiction da ki bilim makaleleri için).

1962:
Roman: Yaban Diyarlardaki Yabancı Robert A. Heinlein
Kısa Kurgu: Sıcakev serisi Brian W. Aldiss
Dramatik Sunum.: Alacakaranlık Kuşağı
Profesyonel Magazin: Analog
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Ed Emshwiller
Fanzin: Warhoon (Richard Bergeron)
Special Ödülü: Cele Goldsmith ( Amazing and Fantastic dergisini yayına hazırlamasıyla)
Special Ödülü: Donald H. Tuck (Bilimkurgu ve Fantezi Elkitabı)
Special Ödülü: Fritz Leiber ve the Hoffman Electric Şirketi. (Bilimkurguyu Reklamlarda Kullanışıyla)
1961:
Roman: A Canticle for Leibowitz Walter M. Miller, Jr.
Kısa Kurgu: En Uzun Yolculuk Poul Anderson
Dramatik Sunum.: Alacakaranlık Kuşağı
Profesyonel Magazin: Astounding/Analog
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Ed Emshwiller
Fanzin: Who Killed Science Fiction? (Earl Kemp)

1960:
Roman: Yıldız Gemisi Askerleri Robert A. Heinlein
Kısa Kurgu: Algernon’a Çiçekler (Flowers for Algernon) Daniel Keyes
Dramatik Sunum.: Alacakaranlık Kuşağı
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Ed Emshwiller
Fanzin: Cry of the Nameless (F. M. ve Elinor Busby, Burnett Toskey, Wally Weber)
Special Ödülü: Hugo Gernsback "The Father of Magazine Science Fiction"

1959:
Roman: Vicdan Sorunu (A Case of Conscience) James Blish
Hikaye: Büyük Avlu (The Big Front Yard) Clifford D. Simak
Kısa Hikaye: "That Hell-Bound Train" Robert Bloch
Bk veya Fantezi Filmi: (Ödül Verilmedi)
Profesyonel Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Amatör Magazin: Fanac (Ron Ellik ve Terry Carr, eds.)
1958’in Yeni Yazarı: (Ödül verilmedi, fakat Brian W. Aldiss’ e plaket verildi)

1958:
Roman veya Hikaye: Büyük Zaman (The Big Time) Fritz Leiber
Kısa Hikaye: Yada Tüm Denizler İstiridyeli (Or All the Seas With Oysters) Avram Davidson
En iyi Film: Kendi Kendine Küçülen Adam
Magazin: Fantasy & Science Fiction
En iyi Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
En iyi Actifan(Aktif Hayran): Walter A. Willis

1957:
Amerikan Profesyonel Magazini: Astounding
İngiliz Profesyonel Magazini: New Worlds
Hayran Magazini: Science-Fiction Times (James V. Taurasi, Sr., Ray Van Houten, Frank Prieto)

1956:
Roman: İkiz Yıldız Robert A. Heinlein
Hikaye: Keşif Takımı (Exploration Team) Murray Leinster
Kısa Hikaye: Yıldız Arthur C. Clarke
Makale Yazarı : Willy Ley
Magazin: Astounding
Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Hayran Magazini: Inside & Science Fiction Advertiser (Ron Smith)
Ümit veren yazar: Robert Silverberg
Kitap Eleştirmeni: Damon Knight

1955:
Roman: They'd Rather Be Right Mark Clifton and Frank Riley
Hikaye: "The Darfsteller" Walter M. Miller, Jr.
Kısa Hikaye: "Allamagoosa" Eric Frank Russell
Magazin: Astounding
Sanatçı: Frank Kelly Freas
Hayran Magazini: Fantasy Times (James V. Taurasi, Sr. veRay Van Houten)
Special Ödülü: Sam Moskowitz (Mystery Guest ve önceki çalışmaları için
1954 (2004’ de verildi):
Roman: Fahrenheit 451 Ray Bradbury
Kısa Roman: Vicdan Sorunu (A Case of Conscience) James Blish
Hikaye: Dünyalı, Eve Dön (Earthman, Come Home) James Blish
Kısa Hikaye: Tanrının Dokuz Milyar Adı Arthur C. Clarke
İlişkili Kitap: Ayın Fethi Wernher von Braun, Fred L. Wipple ve Willey Ley
Dramatik Sunum, Kısa Formda: Dünyalar Savaşı
Profesyonal Editör: John W. Campbell, Jr.
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Chesley Bonestell
Fanzin: Slant ed. Walt Willis, art ed. James White
Amatör Yazar: Bob Tucker

1953:
Roman: Yirmidördüncü Yüzyılda Cinayet (The Demolished Man) Alfred Bester
Profesyonel Magazin: Galaxy and Astounding
En iyi makale yazarı: Willy Ley
Kapak Sanatçısı: Ed Emshwiller ve Hannes Bok
Çizer: Virgil Finlay
Yeni BK yazarı veya sanatçısı: Philip José Farmer
1 Numaralı Hayran Kişiliği: Forest J. Ackerman

1951 (Ödülüed in 2001):
Roman: Farmer in the Sky by Robert A. Heinlein
Kısa Roman: Ay’ı Satan Adam (The Man Who Sold the Moon) Robert A. Heinlein
Hikaye: Küçük Siyah Çanta (The Little Black Bag) C. M. Kornbluth
Kısa Hikaye: İnsana Hizmet için (To Serve Man) Damon Knight
Dramatik Sunum.: Destination Moon
Profesyonel Editör: John W. Campbell, Jr.
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Kelly Freas
Fanzin: Science Fiction News Letter (Bob Tucker)
Amatör Yazar: Bob Silverberg
Amatör Sanatçı: Jack Gaughan

1946 (Ödülüed in 1996):
Roman: Katır Isaac Asimov
Kısa Roman: Hayvan Çiftliği George Orwell
Hikaye: Mesaj Murray Leinster
Kısa Hikaye: Nadir His (Uncommon Sense) Hal Clement
Dramatik Sunum.: The Picture of Dorian Gray
Profesyonal Editör: John W. Campbell, Jr.
Profesyonel Sanatçı: Virgil Finlay
Fanzin: Voice of the Imagi-Nation (Forest J Ackerman)
Amatör Yazar: Forest J Ackerman
Amatör Sanatçı: William Rotsler

Stanislaw Lem

Yakın zaman önce kaybettiğimiz büyük BK ustası ve benim kişisel olarak en sevdiğim yazar...
ve kendimce Yenilmez adlı romanı hakkında yazdığım yazı.


1921 Polonya Lwow doğumlu, 1941 yılına kadar Lwow'da tıp öğrenimi gören Lem, İkinci Dünya Savaşı yıllarında elektrik teknisyenliği yaptı. Polonya'da bilimkurgu geleneği yok, adam önce Sovyet bilimkurgu geleneğini okumaya başlıyor, Amerikan bilimkurgusunu da 1950'lerin sonlarında öğreniyor. İlk kitabı 1955'de yayımlandı (Kazanılan Zaman). Bu kitabından sonra kendini dünya çapında ünlü yapacak olan bilimkurgu metinleri üretmeye başladı. Astronauic "Issız Yıldız" adıyla 1955'te filme çekildi. Bilimkurgu kitapları yazdığı ilk
yıllarda modern bilimle hümanistik ahlâkı birleştirmeye çalıştı. Eserlerindeki olayları tam bir bilimsel kesinlik içinde açıklaması onu diğer BK yazarlarından ayırır.

Amerikan Bilimkurgu Edebiyatçıları Derneği'ne fahri üyeyken, Amerikan bilimkurgu yazınını eleştirdiği için üyeliği askıya alındı. Solaris adlı eseri 1979’da Andrei Tarkovski ve 2002’de Steven Sodenberg tarafından sinemaya uyarlandı.

Romandaki olayların geçtiği tarih kesin değildir, fakat insanoğlu yıldızlar arası yolculuklar yapabilecek kapasitededir. Lir takımyıldızındaki Reigis 3 gezegenine iniş yaptıktan sonra bir daha haber alınamayan “Kondor” adlı uzay gemisinin başında neler geldiğini öğrenmek için başka bir gemi daha gönderilir. Yeni geminin adı Yenilmez’dir. Mürettebatın içinde belirli dallarda özelleşmiş olan çok sayıda bilim adamı bulunmaktadır. Yenilmez, gezegene iniş yaptığında, Kaptan Hoparch güvenlik prosedürünü en üst seviyede tutar; bilimsel çalışmalar dışında mürettebatın gezegen yüzeyine çıkmasını yasaklar. Romandaki en belirgin bilimsel gelişme belirli bir koruma alanı sağlayan dirac emülatorleridir. (Dirac, Paul pozitif elektronların varlığını kanıtlayan kuantum fizikçisidir, romandaki güç alanları bu prensibe göre çalıştığı varsayılır.) Mürettebat belirli gruplar halinde gezegende keşifler yapmaya başlarlar. Gezegen şartları Dünya’nınkiyle aşağı yukarı özdeştir. Çalışmalar sırasında karada hiçbir yaşam izine rastlanmaz. Gezegenin denizleri incelendiğinde denizde bir yaşamın olduğu görülür. Deniz canlıları Dünya’dakilerle benzerlik gösterir; Dünya’dakilerden tek farkı manyetik alan şiddetinin değişikliklerine tepki veren bir duyu organının bulunmasıydı. Bilim insanlarının en çok şaşırdığı nokta suda dünyadakine benzer bir şekilde yaşam ortaya çıktıktan sonra neden bunun karaya ulaşmadığıydı. Gezegen hakkında araştırmalar devam ederken şehir yapısını andıran dev metal yapıtlar bulunur. Bu yapıtlar incelendiğinde herhangi bir şehir yapısına benzemediği ortaya çıkar. Gezegen üzerinde karada yaşam olma ihtimali iyice azalır. Devam eden günlerde kayıp kondor gemisi bulunur ve tüm mürettebat bilimsel çalışmaları bırakıp gemiyi araştırmaya giderler. Kondor mürettebatının hepsi açlıktan ölmüştür. Olayı ilginç kılan kesim ise gemi ambarlarında açılmamış ve hala taze olarak duran tonlarca yemek bulunmaktadır. Yenilmez’in bilim adamları bu olaya bir açıklık getiremezler. Kondor mürettebatından bir kişi hibernasyon kapsülünde bulunur, fakat bu adam da ölmüştür. bilim adamları insanın öldüğünde ne gördüğü ve ne düşündüğünü ortaya çıkaran bir araçla ölen şahsın beynini inceler ve esrarengiz bir şekilde bu kısmın bir bebeğinki kadar boş olduğunu görürler. Ölen tayfa üzerindeki araştırmaların hiçbiri olaya açıklık getiremez.
Yenilmez’in bilim adamları tam bir hayal kırıklığı içindedir, çünkü açıklanamayan olayların sayısı çok fazla ve bu olayları açıklamaya yönelik eldeki veriler çok çok azdır. Sonraki günlerde trajik bir olay meydana gelir, mürettebattan bir kişi tüm zihinsel hafıza özelliklerini kaybetmiştir. Konuşamamakta ve bir insanın yapabileceği en basit şeyleri bile yapamamaktadır. Bilim adamları geri dönüşümsüz bir hafıza kaybı olduğuna kara verirler. Bir iki hafta içinde tayfanın bazı temel şeyleri öğrenmesi bu görüşü doğrular. Ayrıca gezegen yüzeyinde belirli periyotlar içinde ortaya çıkan siyah bulutumsu bir obje belirlerler. İlk başlarda bunu değişik bir hava olayı olduğunu sanırlar fakat bu obje Yenilmez’den fırlatılan uyduları bozunca durumun ciddiyetini kavrarlar. Bu objeler topluluğu belirli bir etkene saldırmaktadırlar. Bir araştırma grubu yüzeydeki metal kalıntılar hakkında daha ayrıntılı gözlem yaparken gemiyle irtibatı kesilir, onları aramaya giden kurtarma ekibi mürettebatı sağlam fakat önceki hafıza kaybına uğramış tayfanın durumunda bulurlar. Gemide hafızası silinen eleman sayısı yaklaşık ona ulaşmıştır. Bundan sonra ekip daha ciddi güvenlik önlemleri altında çalışmaya başlar. Son çalışmalarından birinde ekip tekrar siyah bulutun saldırısına uğrar, fakat bu sefer ekipteki bir eleman saldırıdan zihni silinmeden kurtulmayı başarır. Ana gemiye siyah bulut parçasını oluşturan siyah kristallerden birkaçını da getirir.
Yapılan incelemeler sonucunda, gezegende kara yaşamının olmayışı, yüzeydeki metal kalıntılar ve insanlara saldırıp beyindeki tüm bilgileri silen siyah kristaller arasında bir bağlantı olduğu sonucuna varılır. Yaklaşık 6 milyon yıl önce Lir yıldızının gezegeninde zeki varlıklar yaşıyordu ve bir şekilde onlara ait bir gemi bu gezegene indi. Gezegene iniş yaptıktan sonra bir çeşit kaza sonucu tüm mürettebat oldu geriye gelişmiş bir teknoloji ürünü otomatlar kaldı. Bu robotların bilinçli bir zekaları yoktu fakat bir şekilde yeni otomatları imal etme olanakları vardı. Bulundukları çevre içinde sağlamlıklarını koruma düzenekleri de, bir şekilde bu gezegende yaşayan canlılar onlara saldırdı ve onlarda kendilerini korudu ve karşı saldırıya geçti. Bu işlemlerin uzun yıllar aldığını varsayarsak ki tüm gezegen üzerindeki canlılarla mücadeleden bahsediliyor, yeni imal edilen makineler ilk örneklerine benzemez oldular ve bu noktada ölü bir evrim başladı: makinelerin evrimi. Yeni otomatlar üretilip geliştirildikçe enerji kaynağı arayışına girdiler ve çeşitli madencilik metotları geliştirdiler, gezegende (radyoaktif element yoktu). Bir noktadan sonra bir enerji krizi patlak verdi, bu durum sonucunda makineler varlıklarını koruma uğruna bir savaş verdiler. Büyük hacimli yüksek enerji gerektiren otomatlar bu savaşı kaybetti ve geriye küçük, enerji kullanımı açısından tutumlu otomatlar hayatta kaldı. Bu süreç sonunda iki tip otomat tipi hayatta kaldı. Birinci grup küçük hacme ve enerji gereksinimine sahip olanlar, ikinci grup ise hareket yeteneği olmayan meta yapılar. Bu iki ırk arasındaki mücadelede ise doğal olarak hareket yeteneğine sahip olan, mürettebatın karşılaştığı siyah kristal parçaları kaldı. Bu hipotez gezegen üzerindeki metal kalıntılarını, karada neden yaşamın gelişmediğini ve sudaki canlıların neden manyetik bir duyu organına ihtiyaç duyduğunu ve siyah kristal parçacıkların hareket yapısını tam olarak açıklıyordu. Ufak parçalar tehlikeyi sezdiğinde birleşip daha büyük bir yapı haline gelebiliyor ve bu şekilde hareket edebiliyorlardı. Ayrıca kurbanlarını neden öldürmediklerini sadece beynine zarar verdiklerini de. Öldürmek kuşkusuz daha fazla enerji gerektiriyordu, bunun yerine beyin fonksiyonlarını sıfırlamak bir süre sonra kurbanın hayatta kalma şansını da azaltıyordu. Saldırıdan kurtulan eleman ise saldırı karşısında uğradığı şoktan dolayı beyninde bir süre düşünemedi ve dolayısıyla makinelerde onu bir canlı varlık olarak algılamamışlardı. Makineler ölü bir evrim geçirmişlerdi. Sadece saldırı altında olduklarında tepki veriyorlardı; herhangi bir entelektüel akıl geliştirme yetenekleri yoktu.

Romanın bana göre en iyi tarafı, insanın eldeki bilgileri bilimsel metodlar dahilinde zekice kullanarak sonuca ulaşabilme özelliğini ele almasıydı. Aynı zamanda insanlığın her konuda her zaman zafer kazanamayacağı, karşısına tamamen farklı bir tipte sorunlarda çıkabileceğiydi.

I,Robot filminden bir sahne

Filmi izleyenler bilir,dedektif Del Spoonerun robo-psikolog Susan Kelvine neden robotlara güvenmediğini anlattığı bir sahne var.Sahnede dedektifin eskiden başına geçen bir trajik araba kazası anlatılıyor.Kazada dedektifimizin bulunduğu araba ve içinde 12 yaşında bir kızın bulunduğu araba ciddi bir şekilde hasar alır ve bulundukları konum nedeni ile iki arabada göle doğru batmaya başlar.Bu sırada olay yeri yakınından bir robot geçmektedir,robotların yapay zekasındaki en temel komut insanlara ne pahasına olursa olsun yardım etmek olduğu için robot olay yerine hızla gelir. Robot beyni iki arabadaki insanların kurtarılma olasılığını hesaplar ve 12 yaşındaki kızın kurtarılma olasılığı dedektifinkine göre çok küçüktür.Bu nedenden dolayı robot (dedektifin kızı kurtarması isteğine rağmen) dedektifi kurtarır.Dedektif kendisi yerine 12 yaşındaki kızın yaşaması gerektiğini ,insancıl olanın bu olduğunu savunur.Bu olaydan sonrada robotlara güvenini yitirir.

İşte güzel bir bilimkurgu eserinin salak bir romantizme yenilmesini görüyoruz burada.Çoğu insan bu sahneyi benim kadar garip bulmamıştır eminim.Ama bu sahnede anlatılan şeyler tamamen ZIRVALIK.

Dedektifin içine düştüğü durum onun rasyonal bir şekilde düşünme yeteneğini derinden etkilemiş galiba.Olayı robot ve dedektifin açısından basitçe inceleyelim öncelikle.
-Olay yerinde kaza geçirmiş iki araç ve içinde mahsur kalmış 2 insan var.
-İnsanların kurtarılma olasılığı gözardı edilemeyecek kadar farklı.
Bu 2 durum robotun yapay zekasına veri olarak girdiğinde yapılacak eylem bellidir.
Kurtarılma olasılığı yüksek olan insanı kurtarmak.
Robotumuzda bu eylemi mantıklı olarak gerçekleştiriliyor.
Dedektifimiz ise kurtarılma olasılığı düşük olanın küçük bir kız olduğunu,önünde yaşaması için uzun yıllar olduğunu belirterek,robotun kendisi yerine kızı kurtaraması gerektiğini düşünüyor.Robotta mantıklı seçim olarak kurtarılma olasılığı yüksek olan kendisini kurtardığı için robotlara karşı bir düşmanlık besliyor.Bu düşüncesini "robotlar akılsal hareket eder,kalpsel değil" diyerek beyan ediyor.

Rölativite hesaplarıyla alakalı fortran programları

Meraklısına programlar:

program relativity
!bu program hareketli cisme göre ölçülen zamanın genleşmesini hesaplar
real::t,tson,v,c
c=299792458
print*,"hareketli cisimde olculen zamani giriniz"
read*,t
print*,"haraketli cismin hizini giriniz"
read*,v
tson=t/sqrt(1-(v**2)/(c**2))
print*,tson
end program relativity


program relativity
!bu program verilen hızda hareket eden cismin boyunu hesaplar
real::l,v,lson,c
character(len=1)::a
c=299792458
do
print*,"cismin ilk boyunu giriniz"
read*,l
print*,"cismin hizini giriniz"
read*,v
lson=l*sqrt(1-(v**2)/(c**2))
print*,"cismin",v,"hizindaki boyu",lson,"m"
print*,"bir daha hesap yapmak istiyor musunuz?"
read*,a
if (a=="e")then
cycle
endif
if (a/="e")then
exit
endif
enddo
end program relativity

Bilimkurgunun misyonu nedir?

Yaklaşık 100 yıl öncesinden beri süregelen bilimkurgu akımı çeşitli evreler ve evrimler geçirdi.Bu gelişim evresinin kaçınılmaz sonucu olarak bilimkurgunun ne olduğu ,nasıl olması gerektiği gibi bir çok soru soruldu,çeşitli kişiler tarafından da bu sorulara uygun bir takım cevaplar ( genelde felsefeye dönen bir şelikde daha çok soru içeren cevaplardı bunlar) verildi.

İlk çıkan düşünce bilimkurguya geleceği tahmin etme misyonu biçiyordu.Genel olarak Jules Verne'den etkilendi bu akım.Sonraları gelecekte olan teknolojik gelişmelerin gelişim algoritmasının insanın hesaplama ve tahmin etme gücünü açan bir şekilde oluştuğu anlaşıldı.Her yeni buluş ve icat bu gelişim ve ilerleme hızını artırıyor ve yapısının tahmin edilemez bir hale getiriyordu.Bunun üzerine bu görüş terk edilerek bilimkurgunun gelecek hakkında spekülasyon yapma olduğu benimsendi.

Matrix ve Dune

Bu iki kaliteli bilimkurgu eserini ele alalım.Biri ilk kitabı 1965 yılında yazılan,bilimkurgu felsefe,politika gibi kavramları yoğun bir biçimde kullanan ve yorumlayan,en iyi bilimkurgu eserlerinden biri sayılan Dune.Matrix ise günümüz cyberpunk türünün en etkili sinema örneği.Matrix içinde yer alan gönderme ve aleogriler göz önüne alındığında tüm sinema tarihinin en kaliteli eserlerinden biri olduğunu söylemek pek abartı olmaz.Matrix'in anlamı matemetikde bildiğimiz matrisler-ki programlamada çok kullanılan bir yapı-ayrıca biyolojide geçen bir kavram olarak ,hücreye enerji sağlayan mitokondri yapısını çevreleyen sıvıdır.Sadece eserin isminin böyle göndermeleri olması onun ne kadar büyük olduğunu anlatmakta yeterlidir herhalde.

Bu iki eserin hikayesinde benzer sayılabilecek bir nokta var,ikisindede bir mesih hikayesinden bahsedilir.Dune da ki mesih kavramı Bene Gesserit okulunun genetik dölleme programı ile yaklaşık 90 küsür nesildir süren ve üstün bir şekilde geleceği görme yetisi olan erkek bir Bene Gesserit- Kwisatz Haderach yaratmaktır.Matrix de ki mesih kavramı ise matrix programının içinde ki hatadan oluşan ve ilginç bir şekilde matrix dışındada etkisi süren(bence bu noktada bilimkurgu ile pek uyuşmuyor) Neo isimli bir insan.Buraya kadar ki benzerlikler iki eseri bilen insanlar arasında bile pek şüphe yaratmadı.Çünkü mesih kavramı kullanım alanı açısından baya
yaygın,sadece çok hafif bir şüphe ile Matrix'in Dune dan etkilenmiş olabileceği kuşkusu doğdu,fakat Matrix'in çok dolu ve kaliteli bir yapım olması bu şüphelerin yeşermesine pek imkan vermedi.Dananın kuyruğunun koptuğu nokta ise Matrix Revolutions filmi idi.Filmde Neo'nun gözleri bir silah tarafından yaralanır ve fiziksel olarak gözlerinin kaybeder,ama matrix içinde üstün bir kişilik-ve matrix'in kendi yapısından dolayı-"görme" yetisini kaybermez.Dune daki buna benzer olay ise,serinin ikinci kitabı olan Dune Mesihi'nde geçer. Kwisatz Haderach özelliklerini taşıyan Muad'Dib gözleri kör edici etkisi olan taşyakan bombanın etkisine maruz kalır ve fiziksel olarak gözlerini kaybeder.Fakat oda görme yeteneğini kaybetmez.Bu şaşırtıcı benzerlik bazı çevreler tarafından-ki bu çevreler gerek Matrix'in çok popüler olmasından gerek de son filmin beklentilerin aşağıda olmasından dolayı seriye karşı antipatisi olan insanlardan oluşmaktadır.- Matrix'in Dune dan çalıntı (plagiarisim) yaptığını iddaa eder.Bazı ılımlı çevrelerse bunun çalıntı değil bir gönderme olduğunu ve mesih hikayelerinde bu tarz benzerliklerin olabileceğini belirtmişlerdir.Ben de ikinci grup mesubuyum.Matrix yapı olarak oldukça iyi düşünülmüş ve her yönden kalite çıtasının çok çok üstünde olan bir eser.Bu nedenden dolayı yönetmen Wachowski kardeşleri çalıntı yapmayla suçlamak kedinin uzanamadığı ciğere mundar demesi ile aynı değere sahip.Wachowskiler böyle kalitede bir eser yaratabildiklerine göre kuşkusuz çoğu bilimkurgu eserinide okumuşlardır,Dune serisininde bunun içinde olduğunu sanıyorum.Fakat iki benzerliğin tesadüf mü yoksa göndermemi olduğu ise çok tartışılabilecek bir konu.Filmlerdeki çoğu göndermeler ufak bir sahneyi veya bölümü içerir,Matrix Revolutions da olduğu gibi filmin bütününü etkileyen bir durumun gönderme olarak yapılmasının olasılığı azdır,fakat bu olasılığın azlığı kuşkuları canlı tutmaya yetecek kadar da fazladır, gönderme olabilirde olmayabilirde.Sonuç ne olursa olsun iki eserde bundan bir şey kaybetmeyecektir,aksine kaliteleri bir kez daha perçinlenmiş olacaktır.Birde düşük bir ihtimal olan Wachowskilerin Dune eserini okumamış olması durumu var.Eğer böyle ise kopmlo teorileri üretmekte usta olan beyinler büyük bir konu kaybedecektir.Fakat okumamış olsalar bile matrixde ki mesihin kör olma kavramı yer alabilirdi kanımca,bu tema Dune'a uyduğu kadar Matrix'in yapısınada uyuyor.

Uçan arabalar

Gelecekteki teknolojik gelişimlerin tahminini yapmak zor bir iştir. Tarot ya da kahve falı gibi metafiziksel yollara başvuramazsınız, bilimkurgusal bir gelecek tasviri için sağlam bilimsel temel bilgileriniz olmalı, gerçekçi ve analitik düşünme yöntemini başarılı bir biçimde uygulayabilmeniz gereklidir.
Gelecekte olabilecek teknolojik gelişmelere bu çerçeveden bakmaya çalışırsak, olabilecek teknik gelişmelerin ortak noktası basitlik ve maksimum olacaktır(olmalıdır).
Bilimkurgu filmlerinde çok kullanılan bir kavram olan uçan arabaları ele alalım. Peki, bu kavramın gerçekleşme ihtimali ve kullanışlılığı ne kadardır. Hemen söyleyeyim eğer yakın gelecekte bu konuda devrimci bir teknolojik gelişme olmazsa%0’a yakın. Bu kavramın geliştirilmesindeki yegane zorluk, uçma mantığına dayanmayan bir yöntem geliştirilmesi gerekliliğidir. Uçak ya da helikopter mantığına dayanan araç bir araba değil hava taşıtıdır, farklı bir mühendislik dalının konusudur ve ucuzda değildir.
Aklıma gelebilecek en olası düşünce yerden birkaç santimetre yüksekliğinde manyetik bir alan üzerinde giden taşıtlar olabilir. Yanılmıyorsam bu düşünce bazı hızlı tren ve prototiplerinde kullanıyor. Fakat böyle bir düşünceyi otoyola uygulamak şüphesiz çok zor ve karmaşıktır. Ayrıca trenle kıyasladığımızda bu proje inanılmaz pahalıdır.
Filmlerde görülen uçan arabaların bir zorluğu da aracın 3 boyutlu hareket etmesidir.Yerde giden arabaların 2 boyutlu hareket ettiğini göz önüne aldığımızda uçan araba kullanmak pek de kolay değildir.Ancak belli mesleğe dahil olan insanların kullanması daha uygun olabilir(Blade Runner filmindeki gibi).
Bana göre uçan arabaların üretimi imkansız değil fakat günümüz şartlarında gereksizdir.

Dune

ben bir dune fanıyım